WBUT B.Tech Civil Engineering Transportation engineering 2012

University:West Bengal University of Technology

Course: B.Tech Civil Engineering

Subject :  Transportation engineering

Year of  Question Paper : 2012

An airport is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters take off and land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport. An airport consists of at least one surface such as a runway for a plane to take off and land, a helipad, for takeoffs and landings, and often includes buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminal buildings.

Runway:

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft". Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, or salt).

1. Single Runway

2. Parallel Runways

3. Open –V Runways

4. Intersecting Runways

Main runway should be oriented as closely as possible to the direction of the prevailing winds.

Runways should be oriented so aircraft may be landed at least 95% of the time with a crosswind component not exceeding 13 knots.

Ø  Runways are defined/identified by their orientation with respect to magnetic north (eg. 270 degree runway is Runway 27)

Ø  When the same runway is used from opposite directions the runway is identified by both orientations (eg. Runway 09/27)

Ø  Runway length and width are determined by the type of aircraft using the airport and their requirements.

Taxiway:

A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass.

Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land or depart in a shorter space of time.

Airport Apron/ramp:

The airport ramp or apron is part of an airport. It is usually the area where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled or boarded. Although the use of the apron is covered by regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more accessible to users than the runway or taxiway. However, the apron is not usually open to the general public and a license may be required to gain access.

The use of the apron may be controlled by the apron management service (apron control or apron advisory). This would typically provide a coordination service between the users.

The apron is designated by the ICAO as not being part of the maneuvering area. All vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are referred to as apron traffic.

Hangar:

A hangar is a closed structure to hold aircraft or spacecraft in protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other materials such as wood and concrete are also used. Hangars are used for: protection from weather, protection from direct sunlight, maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields.

Airport Terminal:

An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft.

Within the terminal, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, and go through security. The buildings that provide access to the airplanes are typically called concourses. However, the terms "terminal" and "concourse" are sometimes used interchangeably, depending on the configuration of the airport.

Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports have several terminals. At small airports, the single terminal building typically serves all of the functions of a terminal.

Control Tower:

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC systems worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent collisions, to organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and to provide information and other support for pilots when able.[1] In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense role, or be run entirely by the military.

Different type of airport:

Airports have many classifications, depending on their functions, size, and ownership. The broadest classification is civil and military, international and domestic, and so on. The most commonly accepted classifications by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration), ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization), UK, and Canada are shown in the illustration.

FAA airport classification

Airplane design group	Wing-span (meters)
I	< 15
II	From 15 m up to, but not including 24 m
III	From 24 m up to, but not including 36 m
IV	From 36 m up to, but not including 52 m
V	From 52 m up to, but not including 60 m
VI	From 60 m up to, but not including 80 m

ICAO airport reference code

Code number	Field length	Code letter	Field length	Field length
1	<800 m	A	<15 m	<4.5 m
2	From 800 m up to but not including 1,200 m	B	From 15 m up to but not including 24 m	From 4.5 m up to but not including 6 m
3	From 1,200 m up to, but not including 1,800 m	C	From 24 m up to, but not including 36 m	From 6 m up to, but not including 9 m
4	≥ 1,800m	D	From 36 m up to, but not including 52 m	From 9 m up to, but not including 14 m
		E	From 52 m up to, but not including 60 m	From 9 m up to, but not including 14 m

Airport site selection:
The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under consideration. However if such factors as required for the selection of the largest facility are considered the development of the airport by stages will be made easier and economical. The factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation:
1.regionalplan
2.airportuse
3.proximitytootherairport
4.groundaccessibility
5.topography
6.obstructions
7.visibility
8.wind
9.noisenuisance
10.gradingdrainageandsoilcharacteristics
11.futuredevelopment
12.availabilityofutilitiesfromtown
13.economicconsideration
Regional plan: The site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an integral part of the national network of airport.
Airport use: the selection of site depends upon the use of an airport. Whether for civilian or for military operations. However during the emergency civilian airports are taken over by the defense. There fore the airport site selected should be such that it provides natural protection to the area from air roads. This consideration is of prime importance for the airfields to be located in combat zones. If the site provides thick bushes.
Proximity to other airport: the site should be selected at a considerable distance from the existing airports so that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the movement of aircraft at other airport. The required separation between the airports mainly depends upon the volume of air traffic.
Ground accessibility: the site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users. The airline passenger is more concerned with his door to door time rather than the actual time in air travel. The time to reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially for short haul operations.
Topography: this includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc. A raised ground a hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport.
Obstructions: when aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as compared to the forward speed. For this reason long clearance areas are provided on either side of runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or loose altitude.
Visibility: poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should therefore be free from visibility reducing conditions such as fog smoke and haze. Fog generally settles in the area where wind blows minimum in a valley.
Wind: runway is so oriented that landing and take off is done by heading into the wind should be collected over a minimum period of about five years.
Noise nuisance: the extent of noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft type of engine propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute with jet engine aircrafts. Therefore the site should be so selected that the landing and take off paths of the aircrafts pass over the land which is free from residential or industrial developments.
Grading, drainage and soil characteristics: grading and drainage play an important role in the construction and maintenance of airport which in turn influences the site selection. The original ground profile of a site together with any grading operations determines the shape of an airport area and the general pattern of the drainage system. The possibility of floods at the valley sites should be investigated. Sites with high water tables which may require costly subsoil drainage should be avoided.
Future development: considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in future more member of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic.

Difference between airfield and airport:

Airfield:

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) a airfield is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft". Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, or salt).

1. Single airfield

2. Parallel airfield

3. Open –V airfield

4. Intersecting airfield

Main airfield should be oriented as closely as possible to the direction of the prevailing winds.

Airfield should be oriented so aircraft may be landed at least 95% of the time with a crosswind component not exceeding 13 knots.

Ø  Airfields are defined/identified by their orientation with respect to magnetic north (eg. 270 degree runway is Runway 27)

Ø  When the same runway is used from opposite directions the runway is identified by both orientations (eg. Runway 09/27)

Ø  Airfield length and width are determined by the type of aircraft using the airport and their requirements.

Airport:

An airport is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters take off and land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport. An airport consists of at least one surface such as a runway for a plane to take off and land, a helipad, for takeoffs and landings, and often includes buildings such as aoron, control towers, hangars and terminal buildings.

Taxiway:

A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass.

Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land or depart in a shorter space of time.

Terminal Area:

An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft.

Within the terminal, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, and go through security. The buildings that provide access to the airplanes are typically called concourses. However, the terms "terminal" and "concourse" are sometimes used interchangeably, depending on the configuration of the airport.

Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports have several terminals. At small airports, the single terminal building typically serves all of the functions of a terminal.

Ground side component and air side component of an airport:

Ground side component

The part of an airport used for operations unrelated to the departure and arrival of aircraft.

Hangar:

A hangar is a closed structure to hold aircraft or spacecraft in protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other materials such as wood and concrete are also used. Hangars are used for: protection from weather, protection from direct sunlight, maintenance, repair, manufacture, assembly and storage of aircraft on airfields.

Airport Terminal:

An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft.

Within the terminal, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, and go through security. The buildings that provide access to the airplanes are typically called concourses. However, the terms "terminal" and "concourse" are sometimes used interchangeably, depending on the configuration of the airport.

Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports have several terminals. At small airports, the single terminal building typically serves all of the functions of a terminal.

Control Tower:

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC systems worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent collisions, to organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and to provide information and other support for pilots when able.[1] In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense role, or be run entirely by the military.

Air side component:

The part of an airport directly involved in the arrival and departure of aircraft.

Runway:

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft". Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, or salt).

1. Single Runway

2. Parallel Runways

3. Open –V Runways

4. Intersecting Runways

Main runway should be oriented as closely as possible to the direction of the prevailing winds.

Runways should be oriented so aircraft may be landed at least 95% of the time with a crosswind component not exceeding 13 knots.

Ø  Runways are defined/identified by their orientation with respect to magnetic north (eg. 270 degree runway is Runway 27)

Ø  When the same runway is used from opposite directions the runway is identified by both orientations (eg. Runway 09/27)

Ø  Runway length and width are determined by the type of aircraft using the airport and their requirements.

Taxiway:

A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass.

Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land or depart in a shorter space of time.

Airport Apron/ramp:

The airport ramp or apron is part of an airport. It is usually the area where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled or boarded. Although the use of the apron is covered by regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more accessible to users than the runway or taxiway. However, the apron is not usually open to the general public and a license may be required to gain access.

The use of the apron may be controlled by the apron management service (apron control or apron advisory). This would typically provide a coordination service between the users.

The apron is designated by the ICAO as not being part of the maneuvering area. All vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are referred to as apron traffic.

1.Define harbor:

A harbor or harbour is a place where ships, boats, and barges can seek shelter from stormy weather, or else are stored for future use. Harbors can be natural or artificial. An artificial harbor has deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jettys, or otherwise, they could have been constructed by dredging, and these require maintenance by further periodic dredging. An example of the former kind is at Long Beach Harbor, California, and an example of the latter kind is San Diego Harbor, California, which was, under natural conditions, too shallow for modern merchant ships and warships.

2. Difference between port and harbor:

Port:

A port is a location on a coast or shore containing one or more harbors where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land. Port locations are selected to optimize access to land and navigable water, for commercial demand, and for shelter from wind and waves. Ports with deeper water are rarer, but can handle larger, more economical ships. Since ports throughout history handled every kind of traffic, support and storage facilities vary widely, may extend for miles, and dominate the local economy. Some ports have an important military role.

Harbour:

A harbor is a place where ships, boats, and barges can seek shelter from stormy weather, or else are stored for future use. Harbors can be natural or artificial. An artificial harbor has deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jettys, or otherwise, they could have been constructed by dredging, and these require maintenance by further periodic dredging. An example of the former kind is at Long Beach Harbor, California, and an example of the latter kind is San Diego Harbor, California, which was, under natural conditions, too shallow for modern merchant ships and warships.

3. Littoral drift:

Materials moved by waves and currents of the littoral zone. Also known as longshore drift.

Neap Tide:

A tide that occurs when the difference between high and low tide is least; the lowest level of high tide. Neap tide comes twice a month, in the first and third quarters of the moon.

Problem  No 1.

Ø  Divide 360^o into 16 segments each of 22.5 ^o.Percentage of wind is drawn in proper scale.(1:x) x=1,2,3..as reqd.

(Concept: Highest value of the summation of wind of opposite direction for particular indicates best orientation. Mind it we are assuming two directional to and fro on same runway )

Ø  Best Runway Orientation is along EW

(Concept: using both opposite direction with convenience)

Ø  % of time runway can be used for normal landing and takeoff = ENE +E +ESE+WNW+W+WSW=48.3%

Calm Period =8.1%

Ø  Hence Total % of time runway can be used for normal landing and takeoff (48.3+8.1) =56.4%

(Concept: ENE ,E,ESE direction will  be utilized according to convenience and the same for WNW,W,WSW)means supporting effect where as calm period represents no wind flow means no disturbance which emphasis normal landing and takeoff .(The time equal to 56.4% of total)

(Concept : It depicts that remaining time i.e (100-56.4) %will be experienced by cross wind component. This component affects the normal landing and takeoff )

Don’t need to write the concepts  on answer script ,only write the       lines…………….

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